Johannes Kepler

Date of Birth-Death : 1571 - 1630 Country of Birth : Holy Roman Empire (now in Germany) Major Discoveries : Laws of Planetary Motion Writing by the Scientist : Epitome Astronomiae in 1621 in seven volumes Born in the small town in the then Roman empire, Johannes Kepler was the son of a mercenary soldier. Even as a young student, Kepler excelled in mathematics. His intelligence and hard work, earned young Kepler a special place in the hearts of his teachers. It was on the recommendation of one of his teachers that Kepler got an opportunity to work with the renowned Danish astronomer, Tycho Brahe. These were times when it was believed that the Earth was the center of the Universe, and seven planets- Moon, Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn - moved round the Earth. Already several scientists were disputing this theory. Copernicus had put forth his "heliocentric theory" where he stated that the Sun was the center of the Universe, with planets moving around it. Kepler got his chance to not only prove this through mathematical calculations, but also define specific elliptical orbits for the planets' paths around the sun. Kepler worked with Tycho Brahe and after his death, took over the mantle of Imperial Mathematician. Drawing data from Tycho Brahes observations and his own, Kepler formulated the three laws of planetary motion, which established the current theory that planets move in elliptical orbits around the sun. Despite a number of personal tragedies, Kepler's involvement in his work did not wane. As one of the most respected and admired mathematicians of his time, Kepler had many "firsts " to his credit. He was the first to correctly explain planetary motion. Keenly interested in optics, he was one of the first to investigate the formation of pictures with a pin hole camera and the first to explain the principles of how a telescope works.

Stephen Hawking

Date of Birth : 1942 Country of Birth : UK Major Discoveries : Theories on the origin of the Universe Writing by the Scientist : A brief history of time : From the Big Bang to Black Holes (1995) Stephen Hawking decided to become a scientist when he was 8 or 9 years old. By the time he was 14, he had narrowed down his field of interest to mathematics and physics. After obtaining a first class honours degree from Oxford University, he decided to do his Ph.D. study at Cambridge. It was at Cambridge that the disease that was to make him a physical wreck first manifested itself. He began bumping into things. His hands trembled and he found it difficult to tie his shoelaces. His parents took him to a specialist who, after subjecting him to a battery of tests, announced that he had a rare ailment known as motor neuron disease. Victims of the disease usually do not live very long and Hawking, who was 21 years old at the time, was told that he might not live to see his 25th birthday. He was plunged into despair and lost interest in his work. His despondency lasted two years. Then he realised that death was not imminent and he began to fight back the crippling ailment. He obtained his Ph.D. in 1966, married, had children, and slowly began to make a name for himself in his chosen field of study, Cosmology, the study of the Universe. In 1988, he wrote a book in which he put down some of his ideas about the formation and ultimate destiny of the universe. It was titled 'A Brief History of Time'. It became a best-seller, and brought him fame and fortune. Today Hawking is confined to a wheelchair and he cannot even speak without a synthesizer, but his mind remains unaffected. To doctors, he is a medical curiosity; to scientists, he is a pathbreaker in the study of the universe — some have even described him the 'world's greatest living physicist'.

Charles Darwin

Date of Birth-Death : 1809-1882 Country of Birth : UK Major Discoveries : The theory of natural selection Writing by the Scientist : Origin of species by means of natural selection(1859); Descent of man (1871)

Born into a wealthy family, Darwin grew up amidst a life of wealth and comfort . His father was a doctor and had similar aspirations for him. It was no surprise therefore that Darwin first studied medicine at Edinburgh. However, it soon became clear to the family, and particularly to young Charles, that he was not cut out for a medical career. He then went to Cambridge to train to become a clergyman . While at Cambridge, Darwin befriended a biology professor John Stevens Henslow, and his interest in zoology and geography grew. An unforeseen opportunity precluded Darwin's plan of becoming a clergyman. He was invited on board the ship, H.M.S. Beagle as a gentleman companion to the captain. 

The round-the-world journey on H.M.S.Beagle lasted almost five years. Darwin spent most of these years investigating the geology and life of the lands he visited, especially South America, the Galapagos islands, and Pacific coral reefs. This journey triggered in him, an interest in evolution of life on earth, the diversity in plant and animal life, and how they survived.
Upon his return to England in 1836, Darwin tried to solve the riddles of these observations and the puzzle of how species evolve. He began to develop the theory of evolution that was to make him famous. 

Darwin proposed that all life on earth developed gradually over millions of years from a few common ancestors. In other words, the numerous species alive today arose from a single original life form. They developed new characteristics to adjust to different conditions and environments. Those that could not survive perished. 

He called this process of evolution - natural selection. All life, he said, is a continuous struggle in which only the fittest can survive. In other words, in the struggle for survival, the fittest win out at the expense of their rivals because they succeed in adapting themselves best to their environment. 

Darwin was the first of the evolutionary biologists. Until then, people believed that the world they lived in, was the same as what God had created thousands of years ago. Darwin’s theories met with fierce opposition, and even though his theories have been questioned and debated upon, “Darwinism” as his theories are called, remain the first ever documentation on how such a variety of species of plants and animals evolved. 

Darwin continued to write and publish his works on biology throughout his life. He lived with his wife and children at their home in the village of Downe, fifteen miles from London. In the later years, Darwin was plagued by fatigue and intestinal sickness. He died on 19 April, 1882, and lies buried in Westminster Abbey.

Hippocrates

This was an era when people believed that humans suffered from diseases because of supernatural causes such as the action of unfriendly spirits, ghosts, and demons, or from witchcraft. There was no science of medicine. Superstition was very deep rooted in the society. 

It was during these times that Hippocrates was born on the Aegean island of Cos, in Greece. What is known of Hippocrates is from the writings by famous scientists of those times, including those of Hippocrates himself. His teachers in medicine are said to have been his father, Heracleides, and Herodicos of Selymbria.

Hippocrates was the first to understand the workings of the human body through scientific experiments. He did not believe in any of the superstitious explanations given for the ailments of the human body, nor did he believe in miraculous cures. His extensive research in the field of medicine and disease earned him the name of Hippocrates Asclepiades, or "descendant of (the doctor-god) Asclepios." 

Hippocrates’ observations of the human body, have been brought together in the form of a ten volume encyclopedia of medicine and surgery as known in his day. Hippocrates was the first to scientifically explain how the human body works, on the importance of good nutrition for a healthy mind and body, and that disease occurs when something goes wrong with the normal functioning of our body systems. These were revolutionary thoughts. His work not only gained undisputed popularity during his times, but have been accepted as the first step towards the Science of Medicine. 

The contributions of Hippocrates to the field of medicine have stood the test of time. Even today when doctors graduate out of medical school they take an oath, called the Hippocratic oath, which has remained the universal standard for patient care down the years. In the oath, the physician pledges to work for the good of the patient, and to do him no harm.

History of Chess!!!!!!!!

The history of chess spans some 1500 years. The earliest predecessors of the game originated in India, before the 6th century AD. From India, the game spread to Persia. When the Arabs conquered Persia, chess was taken up by the Muslim world and subsequently spread to Southern Europe. In Europe, chess evolved into roughly its current form in the 15th century. In the second half of the 19th century, modern chess tournament play began, and the first World Chess Championship was held in 1886. The 20th century saw great leaps forward in chess theory and the establishment of the World Chess Federation (FIDE). Developments in the 21st century include use of computers for analysis, which originated in the 1970s with the first programmed chess games on the market. Online gaming appeared in the mid 1990's.

The precursors of chess originated in India during the Gupta Empire, where its early form in the 6th century was known as chaturaṅga, which translates as "four divisions of the military": infantry, cavalry, elephantry, and chariotry, represented by the pieces that would evolve into the modern pawn, knight, bishop, and rook, respectively.

Chess was introduced to Persia from India and became a part of the princely or courtly education of Persian nobility. In Sassanid Persia around 600 the name became chatrang, which subsequently evolved to shatranj, and the rules were developed further. Players started calling "Shāh!" (Persian for "King!") when attacking the opponent's king, and "Shāh Māt!" (Persian for "the king is helpless" – see checkmate) when the king was attacked and could not escape from attack. These exclamations persisted in chess as it traveled to other lands. The game was taken up by the Muslim world after the Islamic conquest of Persia, with the pieces largely keeping their Persian names. The Mongols call the game shatar, and in Ethiopia it is called senterej, both evidently derived from shatranj.

The game reached Western Europe and Russia by at least three routes, the earliest being in the 9th century. By the year 1000 it had spread throughout Europe. Chess spread throughout the world and many variants of the game soon began taking shape. Buddhist pilgrims, Silk Road traders and others carried it to the Far East where it was transformed and assimilated into a game often played on the intersection of the lines of the board rather than within the squares. Chess reached Europe through Persia, the Byzantine empire and the expanding Arabian empire. Muslims carried chess to North Africa, Sicily, and Iberia by the 10th century.

The game was developed extensively in Europe, and by the late 15th century, it had survived a series of prohibitions and Christian Church sanctions to almost take the shape of the modern game. Modern history saw reliable reference works, competitive chess tournaments and exciting new variants which added to the game's popularity, further bolstered by reliable timing mechanisms (first introduced in 1861), effective rules and charismatic players. Nowadays this game became very popular among the people.

History of Olympic

 Ancient Olympic Games were a series of competitions held between representatives of several city-states and kingdoms from Ancient Greece, which featured mainly athletic but also combat and chariot racing events. During the Olympic Games all struggles against the participating city-states were postponed until the games were finished. The origin of these Olympics is shrouded in mystery and legend. One of the most popular myths identifies Heracles and his father Zeus as the progenitors of the Games. According to legend, it was Heracles who first called the Games "Olympic" and established the custom of holding them every four years. A legend persists that after Heracles completed his twelve labors, he built the Olympic stadiums an honor to Zeus. Following its completion, he walked in a straight line for 200 steps and called this distance a "stadion" ("stage"), which later became a unit of distance. Another myth associates the first Games with the ancient Greek concept of Olympic truce. The most widely accepted date for the inception of the Ancient Olympics is 776 BC; this is based on inscriptions, found at Olympia, of the winners of a footrace held every four years starting in 776 BC. The Ancient Games featured running events, a pentathlon (consisting of a jumping event, discus and javelin throws, a foot race and wrestling), boxing, wrestling, and equestrian events. Tradition has it that Coroebus, a cook from the city of Elis, was the first Olympic champion.

       The Olympics were of fundamental religious importance, featuring sporting events alongside ritual sacrifices honoring both Zeus and Pelops, divine hero and mythical king of Olympia. Pelops was famous for his chariot race with King Oenomaus of Pisatis. The winners of the events were admired and immortalized in poems and statues. The Games were held every four years, and this period, known as an Olympiad, was used by Greeks as one of their units of time measurement. The Olympic Games reached their zenith in the 6th and 5th centuries BC, but then gradually declined in importance as the Romans gained power and influence in Greece. There is no consensus on when the Games officially ended, the most common-held date is 393 AD, when the emperor Theodosius declared that all pagan cults and practices be eliminated. Another date cited is 426 AD, when his successor Theodosius II ordered the destruction of all Greek temples. This was because the taking part in any worshipping of idols was forbidden. The Olympic games would have to wait at least 1500 years before they were revived again.

The Olympic Games wasn't until after efforts by French Baron Pierre De Coubertin and the Greek Dimitrios Vikelas that the games were brought back to life after nearly 1500 years in the wilderness. De Doubertin believed that sport was a very strong power that could inspire a feeling of unity and peace among the many nations of the world. He believed that this desire could be brought about with the revival of the Olympic Games. After an unsuccessful attempt at reviving the games, he finally achieved his ambition. In 1894 at an international congress that was actually devised for the study of amateur sports he voiced his view on the revival of the Olympic Games, and was delighted when the other countries participating in the congress agreed with him. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) was founded that year.



Held in Athens in 1896 at the Panatheniac Stadium, the games heralded a welcomed return to the original beliefs and virtues of the ancient games. With competitors from 14 nations, the games commenced on April 6th and came to a climax on 15th April. There were 43 events, which were competed in by 245 athletes, all of whom were male. Probably the biggest cheer of the 1896 Olympics was when a Greek Shepard, Spiridon Louis, was victorious in the most popular of all events, the marathon. The athletes from the United States were also big winners in these games, winning 9 events.

What is even more remarkable regarding this is that their Olympic squad barely made it to Athens in time to compete. The Olympics have taken place every four years, since the first games in 1896. However, even the ideals of the Olympic Truce could not prevent the games being cancelled during the first and second world wars. The games cancelled were the 1916 Olympics, due to be held in Berlin, the 1940 games to be held in Tokyo and the 1944 games to be held in Helsinki.

The Winter Olympic Games were introduced in 1924, and also took place every four years. However, it wasn't until 1992 that it was decided that the Olympic and Winter Olympic Games would not take place in the same calendar year. The Winter Games were moved forward two years to 1994, and would continue to take place at four-year intervals. Now these two Olympic games are the major competitions for the athletes all around the world.

Thomas Alva Edison

Thomas Alva Edison (February 11, 1847 – October 18, 1931) was an American inventor and businessman. He developed many devices that greatly influenced life around the world, including the phonograph, the motion picture camera, and a long-lasting, practical electric light bulb. Dubbed "The Wizard of Menlo Park” by a newspaper reporter, he was one of the first inventors to apply the principles of mass production and large teamwork to the process of invention, and therefore is often credited with the creation of the first industrial research laboratory.

Edison is the fourth most prolific inventor in history, holding 1,093 US patents in his name, as well as many patents in the United Kingdom, France, and Germany. He is credited with numerous inventions that contributed to mass communication and, in particular, telecommunications. These included a stock ticker, a mechanical vote recorder, a battery for an electric car, electrical power, recorded music and motion pictures.

His advanced work in these fields was an outgrowth of his early career as a telegraph operator. Edison originated the concept and implementation of electric-power generation and distribution to homes, businesses, and factories – a crucial development in the modern industrialized world. His first power station was on Manhattan Island, New York.


Main Invention

Electric light

Building on the contributions of other developers over the previous three quarters of a century, Edison made improvements to the idea of incandescent light, and entered the public consciousness as "the inventor" of the light bulb, and a prime mover in developing the necessary infrastructure for electric power.

After many experiments with platinum and other metal filaments, Edison returned to a carbon filament. The first successful test was on October 22, 1879; it lasted 13.5 hours. Edison continued to improve this design and by November 4, 1879, filed for U.S. patent 223,898 (granted on January 27, 1880) for an electric lamp using "a carbon filament or strip coiled and connected to platina contact wires".

Although the patent described several ways of creating the carbon filament including "cotton and linen thread, wood splints, papers coiled in various ways”, it was not until several months after the patent was granted that Edison and his team discovered a carbonized bamboo filament that could last over 1,200 hours. The idea of using this particular raw material originated from Edison's recalling his examination of a few threads from a bamboo fishing pole while relaxing on the shore of Battle Lake in the present-day state of Wyoming, where he and other members of a scientific team had traveled so that they could clearly observe a total eclipse of the sun on July 29, 1878, from the Continental Divide.

In 1878, Edison formed the Edison Electric Light Company in New York City with several financiers. Edison made the first public demonstration of his incandescent light bulb on December 31, 1879, in Menlo Park. It was during this time that he said: "We will make electricity so cheap that only the rich will burn candles."

Other Major Activities

Electric power distribution
Carbon Telephone Transmitter Development

Isaac Newton

Isaac Newton was born in 1642 in a manor house in Lincolnshire, England. His father had died two months before his birth. When Isaac was three his mother remarried, and Isaac remained with his grandmother. He was not interested in the family farm, so he was sent to Cambridge University to study.

Isaac was born just a short time after the death of Galileo, one of the greatest scientists of all time. Galileo had proved that the planets revolve around the sun, not the earth as people thought at the time. Isaac Newton was very interested in the discoveries of Galileo and others. Isaac thought the universe worked like a machine and that a few simple laws governed it. Like Galileo, he realized that mathematics was the way to explain and prove those laws. Isaac Newton was one of the world’s great scientists because he took his ideas, and the ideas of earlier scientists, and combined them into a unified picture of how the universe works.

Isaac Newton explained the workings of the universe through mathematics. He formulated laws of motion and gravitation. These laws are math formulas that explain how objects move when a force acts on them. Isaac published his most famous book, Principia, in 1687 while he was a mathematics professor at Trinity College, Cambridge. In the Principia, Isaac explained three basic laws that govern the way objects move. He then described his idea, or theory, about gravity. Gravity is the force that causes things to fall down. If a pencil falls off a desk, it will land on the floor, not the ceiling. In his book Isaac also used his laws to show that the planets revolve around the suns in orbits that are oval, not round.


Isaac Newton used three laws to explain the way objects move. They are often call Newton’s Laws. The First Law states that an object that is not being pushed or pulled by some force will stay still, or will keep moving in a straight line at a steady speed. It is easy to understand that a bike will not move unless something pushes or pulls it. It is harder to understand that an object will continue to move without help. Think of the bike again. If someone is riding a bike and jumps off before the bike is stopped what happens? The bike continues on until it falls over. The tendency of an object to remain still, or keep moving in a straight line at a steady speed is called inertia.

The Second Law explains how a force acts on an object. An object accelerates in the direction the force is moving it. If someone gets on a bike and pushes the pedals forward the bike will begin to move. If someone gives the bike a push from behind, the bike will speed up. If the rider pushes back on the pedals the bike will slow down. If the rider turns the handlebars, the bike will change direction.

The Third Law states that if an object is pushed or pulled, it will push or pull equally in the opposite direction. If someone lifts a heavy box, they use force to push it up. The box is heavy because it is producing an equal force downward on the lifter’s arms. The weight is transferred through the lifter’s legs to the floor. The floor presses upward with an equal force. If the floor pushed back with less force, the person lifting the box would fall through the floor. If it pushed back with more force the lifter would fly into the air.

When most people think of Isaac Newton, they think of him sitting under an apple tree observing an apple fall to the ground. When he saw the apple fall, Newton began to think about a specific kind of motion—gravity. Newton understood that gravity was the force of attraction between two objects. He also understood that an object with more matter –mass- exerted the greater force, or pulled smaller object toward it. That meant that the large mass of the earth pulled objects toward it. That is why the apple fell down instead of up, and why people don’t float in the air.

Isaac Newton thought about gravity and the apple. He thought that maybe gravity was not just limited to the earth and the objects on it. What if gravity extended to the moon and beyond? Isaac calculated the force needed to keep the moon moving around the earth. Then he compared it with the force the made the apple fall downward. After allowing for the fact that the moon is much farther from the earth, and has a much greater mass, he discovered that the forces were the same. The moon in held in an orbit around earth by the pull of earth’s gravity.

Isaac Newton’s calculations changed the way people understood the universe. No one had been able to explain why the planets stayed in their orbits. What held them up? Less than 50 years before Isaac Newton was born it was thought that the planets were held in place by an invisible shield. Isaac proved that they were held in place by the sun’s gravity. He also showed that the force of gravity was affected by distance and by mass. He was not the first to understand that the orbit of a planet was not circular, but more elongated, like an oval. What he did was to explain how it worked.

Taj Mahal

The Taj Mahal is standing majestically on the right bank of River Yamuna at a point where it takes a sharp turn and flows eastwards; the Taj Mahal is synonymous of love and romance. The Taj Mahal complex is organized in a rectangle, measuring approximately 310 x 550 meters. It comprises a number of buildings and structures, all functioning together as the funerary monument for Mumtaz Mahal.


The entire architectural complex mainly consists of five major constituents the Darwaza (The main gateway), Bageecha (The gardens), Masjid (The mosque), Naqqar Khana (The rest house), Rauza (The main mausoleum).

The Taj Ganj area leads to the southern gate into the forecourt of the Taj Mahal complex, although the eastern and western gates of the Jilaukhana are more frequently used by tourists. The latter two gates are identical, with central pointed-arch Pishtaqs flanked by octagonal pilasters crowned with Guldastas (ornamental flower pinnacles).

The southern gate is similar to the east and west ones in its verticality. Due to the natural gradient of the site, which slopes toward the riverbank, this gate lies 2.4 m above the ground elevation of the Jilaukhana itself. Two bazaar streets begin at the east and west gates and lead to the Jilaukhana. The bazaars consist of individual rooms (Hujra) along an arcaded Verandah of multi-cusped arches that are supported on slender columns. The Jilaukhana consists of a large courtyard with 128 hujra rooms opening directly onto the courtyard.

To the northeast of the Jilaukhana are the khawasspuras, two residential enclosures. The north side of the Khawasspuras abuts the southern galleries that flank the great gate to the east and the west. The outer southern corners of the enclosures in the khawasspuras have rooms giving access to latrines. The two Saheli Burj (inner subsidiary tombs) enclosures to the east and west of the Jilaukhana are the tomb complexes of two other wives of Shah Jahan. The saheli burj enclosures have gardens arranged in the Chahar Bagh style, with a pool of water in the center surrounded by paved walkways.

The tomb buildings are octagonal, single-story structures, built on a plinth. The walls are formed of multi cusped arcades. The building and its plinth are clad in red sandstone; the structure is topped by a bulbous white marble dome. Inside, the south door of both of the Saheli Burj tombs leads to the cenotaph within. The colours of the exterior cladding are reversed in the interior: the walls are clad in white marble, while the Jalis and ceiling are sandstone.

The great gate (darwaza-i rauza) is a large structure with triadic openings the base of the gate measures nearly 38 meters and its peripheral walls, including the cupolas, are 30 meters in height. The central Pishtaq, also including the cupolas, is 33 meters in height and 19 meters wide. The gate is composed of red sandstone with decorative panels and accents in white marble.

The entry Iwan contains Muqarnas in red sandstone, which contrasts with the white plaster paint outlining each segment. Topping the central Pishtaq is a series of eleven arches in red sandstone, capped by a chajja. This arrangement of architectural elements into rows is found on both the north and south side of the gate, in keeping with the design of the Taj Mahal complex and its internal hierarchies. The corners of the gateway are accentuated by engaged towers, also of red sandstone, that project outward slightly; these towers are decorated with frames of white marble.

The pointed arch on the south elevation of the darwaza-i rauza partially frames the visitors' first glimpse of the main structure, the mausoleum of Mumtaz Mahal. Flanking the darwaza-i rauza on the north, two double arcaded galleries of multifoliate arches known as the southern galleries, one to the east and one to the west, overlook the large garden that precedes the main mausoleum. The columns of the outer and inner arcades differ only in the decoration of their bases: the outer ones have floral decoration alluding to the garden. The platform of the galleries extends into the garden, and its decorative tile paving pattern faces the garden. The galleries terminate on the east and west ends in rooms which are entered from within the gallery.

A shallow water canal (nahr) runs along the centre of the primary walkways; a line of equidistant water fountains runs down the center of the nahr. Geometric patterns in red sandstone depicting regular and elongated stars decorate the edges of the central pathways running on each side of the nahr. At the intersection of the primary walkways is a raised platform with a square water tank (Hauz) at its center. Five fountains are located within the tank, one at each of its four corners and one in its center. The east-west walkways terminate in two-story pavilions (Naubat Khanas) that merge into the outer garden walls. Aqueducts supplied water to the garden from the Yamuna River just north of the mausoleum. The central fountains operated with an underground system of copper vessels connected by copper pipes. At present the garden contains relatively few trees, consisting mainly of fairly maintained grass lawns.

The two Naubat Khanas (drum houses) are constructed on raised platforms and have two floors. On each level, the naubat khanas have a triple archway in the center of the east and west elevations, respectively. On the ground level, the arches are closed with a Jali screen; on the upper level, they remain open. The floor slab of the upper story projects beyond the wall above and below to form a balcony as long as the building; carved red sandstone handrails run along its length, and carved sandstone brackets help support it from below. The Tahkhana, a gallery of rooms arranged in a row and connected by a narrow corridor, is reached by two staircases that descend from openings in the surface of the plinth to the east and west of the mausoleum.

The secondary, square marble plinth, 93 meters long, is centred on the sandstone terrace. The mausoleum proper and the four minarets flanking it are placed on this marble plinth. The base of the plinth is decorated with delicate carvings of vegetal motifs, which also appear on the white marble cladding of the mausoleum.

In the mausoleum of the Taj Mahal complex, the central chamber is double-height and octagonal in plan. At its center rest the cenotaphs of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan. The chamber is capped by a shallow dome and decorated with niches on each two-story wall. These niches on the cardinal axes have Jali screens, fitted on the external faces of the walls, which allow light into the room. The niches on the diagonal axes hold rectangular doors. The niches are separated into lower and upper stories by an inscription band that runs around the interior. On the upper level, these frames are replaced by Muqarnas that begin to transform the octagonal plan into a circular ring for the dome. The shallow dome, which is the lower portion of the double dome used for construction, thus appears as decorated with an extended pattern of the Muqarnas that support its base.

The floor of the tomb chamber is tiled with octagonal marble stars in alternating cruciform modules, each outlined with inlaid black stone. Each side of this marble octagonal screen is divided into three panels; only one opens to access the cenotaph. The cenotaph of Mumtaz Mahal is a rectangular block placed on a platform decorated with Quranic verses on the upper block and naturalistic motifs on the lower base.

On the roof of the mausoleum is a high drum, topped with a bulbous dome measuring 25.6 meters high by 17.6 meters wide. Four diagonally placed chhatris flank the drum. The terrace provides a view of the garden below; it is accessed by staircases from the ground floor that lie on either side of the entrance to the mausoleum. The four elevations reflect the symmetry of the mausoleum's plan. The two frames flanking the central Pishtaq contain blind arched niches on the upper and lower levels. Each corner of the building presents a chamfered elevation (to the northeast, northwest, southeast, and southwest).

The frame of the mausoleum's central Pishtaqs, as with other similar forms within the complex, is decorated with an inlaid Thuluth inscription of a Quranic verse. At the Pishtaq's highest point is a linear pattern of floral motifs running between two extended engaged columns capped with guldastas. As compared to the larger central Pishtaqs, these two sub-pishtaqs are less elaborately treated, with pilasters on the outer elevations decorated with an inlaid herringbone pattern in black and dark yellow. These pilasters are flanked by square panels, framed with horizontal and vertical chevrons, at their base.

The mosque and Mihmankhana are located to the west and east of the mausoleum building. Symmetrical and identical in design, it is conjectured from records that the mosque was built first, followed by the Mihmankhana. The mosque has a Mihrab in its Qibla wall, highlighted by a marble frame with an inscription of the Sun Sura. The floor of the mosque also differs from that of the Mihmankhana; it is patterned in Muslim prayer mats. The ceilings are finished in the Sgraffito technique, consisting of a coat of red plaster laid over a white one. Floral designs are later carved through the red layer, to appear in white.

The southwest tower contains a Stepwell (baoli) whereas that to the south of the Mihmankhana holds chambers leading to latrines. The southwest tower with the baoli also has a well shaft running down the centre of the structure and extending through its five floors: three above, two below. The two tower pavilions north of the mosque and Mihmankhana contain chambers leading to latrines on the lower levels, and stairs leading toward the riverbed. The four riverfront towers are each octagonal in plan. Each tower has a central room with an ambulatory path circling around the exterior. The exterior walls have multi-cusped blind arches; each terrace has an Oriel window (Jharoka) with views of the river. The towers are clad in red sandstone and have floral motifs carved in relief with marble inlays on panels. 

HISTORY

Taj Mahal was built by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan (1628-1658), grandson of Akbar the great, in the memory of his queen Arjumand Bano Begum, entitled Mumtaz Mahal a Muslim Persian princess. The queen’s real name was Arjumand Banu. In the tradition of the Mughals, important ladies of the royal family were given another name at their marriage or at some other significant event in their lives, and that new name was commonly used by the public.

She died while accompanying her husband in Burhanpur in a campaign to crush a rebellion after giving birth to their 14th child. When Mumtaz Mahal was still alive, she extracted four promises from the emperor: first, that he build the Taj; second, that he should marry again; third, that he be kind to their children; and fourth, that he visit the tomb on her death anniversary. But this has not been proven to be true, till date.

According to legend, after his wife’s death, Shah Jahan reportedly locked himself in his rooms and refused food for eight days, when the emperor emerged from his seclusion, his black beard visible in many Mughal miniature paintings had turned completely white. For the monument to his wife, Shah Jahan chose a site occupied by sprawling gardens on a bend in the left bank of the Yamuna River. Six months later, her body was transferred to Agra to be finally enshrined in the crypt of the main tomb of the Taj Mahal. The Taj Mahal is the mausoleum of both Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan.

The construction of Taj Mahal started in the year 1631 and it took approximately 22 years to build it. It made use of the services of 22,000 labourers and 1,000 elephants for the transportation of the construction materials. The materials used in the Taj Mahal complex are bricks, sandstone and white marble. Brick sizes varied between 18-19 x 11-12.5 x 2.3 cm, a standard size since Akbar's rule. These bricks were baked in kilns on the outskirts of Agra. The sandstone used in the complex has a colour varying from soft red to red with a yellow tint. White marble came from the quarries of Makrana in Rajasthan, approx. 400 kms southeast of Agra. The marble used in the complex was a white one with black and grey streaks.

The greatest technical problem in the construction of the Taj Mahal was its heavy superstructures near the riverfront. This was accomplished using wells cased in wood and filled with rubble and iron, spaced at 3.75 meters on center. Precious and semi-precious stones are used in the decoration of the mausoleum than elsewhere in the complex. These stones include lapis lazuli, sapphire, cornelian, jasper, chrysolite and heliotrope. A strict discipline in colours and decoration is visible in the detailed ornamentation of the Taj Mahal. Floral relief carvings are found on the marble and sandstone walls; these carvings are stylistically related to the pietra dura work, yet are worked according to the material of the building they adorn.

The Taj Mahal architecture is a kind of fusion of Persian, Central Asian and Islamic architecture. Specific design credit is uncertain, and is given by different sources to Istad Usa, Ustad Ahmad Lahori, Isa Muhammad Effendi or Geronimo Veroneo. But construction documents show that its master architect was Istad Usa, the renowned Islamic architect of his time. The documents contain names of those employed and the inventory of construction materials and their origin. And how the entire complex is designed in such a way that the apparent organic unity of the whole does not obscure the individuality of any part, nor does it detract from the prominence of the Taj Mahal proper. It was completed in 1648 at a cost of 32 Million Rupees (more than 750 000 dollars).

Colosseum

Rome was a center of learning, trade and commerce for ages and has contributed significantly in the development of these areas. The origination of the word “Coliseum”, probably come from colossal statue of Nero which once stood near the stadium.

The discussion of Rome would be unfinished without the description of so the much talked Roman Colosseum. But non doubt the architecture and the concept is definitely a matter of appreciation and pride.

Originally was the Flavian Amphitheatre, an elliptical amphitheatre located in the heart of the city of Rome. It is one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic.

The Colosseum or Coliseum occupies a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD under the emperor Vespasian, opened by Emperor Titus in 80 AD with 100 days of games which roughly have taken the lives of some nine thousand animals and remodeled by Domitian who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. Also he added a gallery to the top Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.

The Coliseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles, with a capacity of 50 000 spectators. It was used for the next 500 years with the last recorded games being held there. As well as the traditional gladiatorial games, many other public spectacles were held there, such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. It ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era and it was later re-opened for such varied purposes as housing, workshops; quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry and a Christian shrine.

Today the Colosseum is in a ruined condition, due to damage caused by an earthquakes and stone-robbers. For a long time it has been seen as an icon symbol of Imperial Rome. It’s one of modern Rome’s most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads torchlight “Way of the Cross” procession to the amphitheatre. The Coliseum is depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin. 

HISTORY

The construction began under the rule of Vespasian Emperor around 70-72. The site was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine hills, through which a canalized stream ran. Later the area was densely inhabited by the 2nd century. The Great Fire of Rome in AD 64 devastated it, in addition Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. To supply water to the area, the existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.

Although the Colossus was preserved much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Within the former grounds, gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby the Domus Area. The Coliseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument, in accord to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, “the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general’s share of the booty”. This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt.

The Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire around 217, possibly caused by the lightning which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre’s interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. In 443 a possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523.

During the medieval period, the Coliseum underwent several radical changes. The arena was converted into a cemetery. Around 1200 the Frangipani family used it as a castle, but the great earthquake of 1349 caused the outer south side to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome.

In 1749, the Pope Benedict XIV consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there.

Due to the ruined state, the Coliseum cannot use to host large events so much of these larger concerts have been held just outside, using the building as a backdrop. The Colosseum was covered with an enormous awning known as the velarium. This protected the spectators from the sun. It was attached to large poles on top of the Colosseum and anchored to the ground by large ropes. A team of some 1,000 men was used to install the awning.

Chichen Itza

The famous Mayan pyramids of Chichen Itza (chee-chehn eet-sah) in Maya literally means: "Mouth of the well of the Itza", the name Chichen Itza is a Mayan word: CHI (mouth), CHEN (well) and ITZA (of the Itza tribe), it is located a 75 miles east of Merida, the Capital of the State of Yucatan, Mexico. This archaeological site is rated among the most important of the Maya culture and covers an area of approximately six square miles.

The architectural characteristics of Chichen Itza and that have a direct relationship with the Mayan Toltec style are: "El juego de la Pelota", "El Castillo", "El Grupo de las Mil Columnas", "El tzompantli", El Edificio de las Aguilas", "El templo de los Guerrerros", and "El Mercado". All of these buildings have the same decoration motives found in Tula. The most frequent representations are warriors and Quetzalcoatl.

The main attraction is the central pyramid, a square-based, stepped pyramid that is approximately 75 feet tall, El Castillo de la Serpiente Emplumada, which means "Castle of the Plumed Serpent," and is pictured at the top. The plumed serpent is a popular deity in various Mesoamerican cultures. "El Castillo" is surely the place where the ceremony of the descent of Kukulkan was held. The pyramid has special astronomical layout so that a game of light and shadow is formed. On March 21st the body of the serpent metaphorically descends from the temple on top of the pyramid and arrives at the heads at the foot of the staircase.

Just beyond El Castillo you will find a large ball court where Mayan men played a game called pok ta pok. Anthropologists believe that the object of the game was to hurl a ball through a ring that was mounted on a wall, seven meters above the ground. The largest Ball Game in Mesoamerica is 168 meters in length and 70 meters in width.

The Temple of Chac Mool, upon whose walls and interior pillars there are richly colored carvings of plumed serpents, warriors, and priests. The upper building only partially reflects its true grandeur. There are three sculpted masks with extremely long noses on the outer walls and at the corners. On the inner walls of the vaults there were murals with scenes of war and daily life. The altar tables and benches may have served as seats and thrones for dignitaries.

In the "Templo de los Guerreros" there is a temple on the top part where the entrance columns are typically Toltec. Another one of the buildings that have a Toltec seal without is the "Muro de los Craneos". These buildings were destined to be the mausoleums of the tying up the years. Every 52 years the ancient Mayans and other cultures would tie up a sheaf of years to end a cycle. Platform of Venus or of the Dance, Sacred Well or the Well of the Sacrifices, Tzompantli, that displays figures of skulls in relief.

In the Central Group of the Ruins you can find:

The Red House or Chichan Chob, the name of this building, situated upon a high platform, is derived from the fragments of red paint that were found in its interior. The word "Chichan Chob" means "small holes" and probably alludes to its Lime roof comb. The structure is comprised of an antechamber and three rooms and has a sculptured hieroglyphic inscription in the main chamber. The building must have had a religious and public use, since there is a Ball Court joined to its eastern side, with bas-reliefs in the Maya-Toltec style.

The Caracol or Observatory This structure is known as the Observatory due to its shape and some possible astral associations, since astronomical events concerning the planet Venus and the setting of the sun during the three windows in the upper section. The name "Caracol" (conch) comes from the spiral stairs that lead to the upper part of the building.

The Church, This small building with only one chamber owes its name to its proximity to the so called "convent" of the Nunnery and to the exuberant decoration on its upper facade, which rises even higher due to its lofty roof comb. One can observe large areas covered with the original stucco on the Grecian frets of the central panel. "Bignosed" masks constitute the main element of the facade, with a seated figure, god or ancestor integrated upon the nose of the central mask. There also are figures of the four carriers of the corners of the sky, "bacabes" or "pauahtunes", kneeling in the side panels. It’s appearing that the builder had certain difficulties in placing the three large masks rescued from earlier buildings on the roof comb and opted to suppress detail. Up to now, it is not known what the function of this building was, and in spite of the overloaded decoration of the building, it is one of the best architectural examples of the Puuc style in Chichen Itza.

Temple of the Carved Panels, the name of this building comes from the relieves carved on the north and south walls of the colonnade, depicting scenes of numerous people, plants, and animals, both real and imaginary, which are dominated by two warriors. The building is made up of a temple erected on a slab foundation with a colonnade in front of it. The offerings discovered during exploration of the fire - related rituals.

All areas can be seen comfortably in one day. Also you should enjoy the wonderful Light and Sound Show that is held every evening. At the entrance to Chichen Itza, there is an informative museum, a dining room, clean restrooms, a few gift shops and vendor stands.



HISTORY

Chichen Itza was first populated between 500 and 900 AD by Mayans and for some reason abandoned around 900; the city was then resettled 100 years later and subsequently invaded by Toltecs from the North. There are numerous relieves of both Mayan gods including Chac and the Toltec gods including Quetzacoatl. For some reason the city was abandoned around 1300. If the Spanish did not make it a policy to kill all of the Mayan priests and burn books when they arrived in Mexico, we would all have a few more answers.

The ruins are divided into two groups. One group belongs to the classic Maya Period and was built between the 7th and 10th centuries A.D., at which time the city became a prominent ceremonial center. The other group corresponds to the Maya Toltec Period, from the later part of the 10th century to the beginning of the 13th century A.D. This area includes the Sacred Well and most of the outstanding ruins.

When Chichen-Itza was first settled it was largely agricultural. Because of the many cenotes in the area, it would have been a good place to settle. During the Central Phase of the Classic Period, referred to as Florescence, (625-800 A.D.) arts and sciences flourished here. It was at this time that Chichen-Itza became a religious center of increasing importance, evidenced by the buildings erected: the Red House, the House of the Deer, the Nunnery and its Annex, the Church, the Akab Dzib, the Temple of the Three Lintels and the House of Phalli.

Toward the end of the Classic Period, from 800 to 925 A.D., the foundations of this magnificent civilization weakened, and the Maya abandoned their religions centres and the rural land around them. New, smaller centres were built and the great cities like Chichen Itza were visited only to perform religious rites or bury the dead. The Itza people abandoned their city by the end of the 7th century A.D. and lived on the west coast of the peninsula for about 250 years. However, by the 10th century A.D. they returned to Chichen Itza.

Around 1000 A.D. the Itza allied themselves with two powerful tribes, Xio and Cocom, both claiming to be descendants of the Mexicans. This alliance was favourable to the Itza for about two centuries. During this time, the people of Chichen Itza added to the site by constructing magnificent buildings bearing the touch of Toltec art: porches, galleries, colonnades and carvings depicting serpents, birds and Mexican gods.

The Toltec influenced the Itza in more ways than just architecture. They also imposed their religion on the Itza, which meant human sacrifice on a large scale. They expanded their dominions in northern Yucatan with an alliance with Mayapan and Uxmal. As the political base of Chichen Itza expanded, the city added even more spectacular buildings: the Observatory, Kukulkan's Pyramid, the Temple of the Warriors, The Ball Court, and The Group of the Thousand Columns. The Temple of the Warriors has pillars sculptured in bas-relief, which have retained much of their original colour. Murals once adorned its walls. It is surrounded by numerous ruined buildings known as the Group of a Thousand Columns. In 1194, Mayapan broke the alliance and subdued Chichen and Uxmal. The city was gradually abandoned.

Machu Picchu

Machu Picchu is located on a remote secondary road in nearly impassable terrain high above the Urubamba River, Machu Picchu sits nearly 2438 meters (8000 feet) above sea level, on top of a ridge between two peaks of different size. The name "Machu Picchu" comes simply from its geography. It literally means "old peak", just as "Huaynapicchu" is "young peak". The more accurate translation relates, however, to the concept of size, with Machu Picchu as the "bigger peak" and Huaynapicchu, the "smaller peak".

Machu Picchu, the most famous citadel of the Incas, is accessible by train from Cusco or traveling along the Camino Inca. The city was never discovered by the conquerors Spanish and remained lost for centuries. Machu Picchu is an architectural jewel, which combine perfectly the architectural style with the beautiful natural environment that surrounded it. The Beauty and the Mystery of its walled ruins that once was the palace the thinnest Inca of stone surrounded by the virginal landscapes, the flora and green jungle bathes its abrupt topography.

The citadel is divided into two sectors: the agricultural and the urban, where there are main squares, temples, palaces, storehouses, workshops, stairways, cables and water fountains which run through both sectors, which measure 20 and 10 hectares respectively. Machu Picchu was built according to its natural surroundings, with its constructions following the natural curves and dips and rises in the land.

The sector is surrounded by a series of terraces of different types and sizes which had two main functions: to grow crops and halt the erosion caused by the rains. The most eye catching terraces lie at the entrance to the citadel. They begin at the cluster of rooms located at the entrance and climb up to the top of the mountain until they stop at a large rectangular room. There are no canals as they were not necessary, as the constant rains and ever-present humidity allowed the plants to grow without irrigation. The only water channel that flows through the urban sector crosses through the central terrace.

The control gate is made up of a three walled room with a view with several windows, which can be found in front of the main gateway. There is a good panorama from here of the agricultural and urban sectors and the surrounding landscape. In the upper part, they also found sculpted stones that belong to the area, which indicated the Incas used the stones to make offerings to their gods. On this same piece of ground lies a granite boulder sculpted with steps. But the most striking feature is that it is pierced with a ring, the purpose of which is unknown.

One can see a long stairway that leads to the front gate. This sector houses the most important constructions of any Inca city, where one can appreciate the talent, effort and quality of the pre Hispanic builders, as the constructions are entirely made of granite, a very hard rock that is different from that used in Cusco. The city is U-shaped and containing the temples, houses and workshops on platform terraces that the american scientist Bingham, called the Military Group.

The Temple of Sun is shaped like a semi-circle and built on solid rock, an existing granite block shaped to blend with the natural curves, with a diameter of 10.50 meters. The Intiwatana is located on a hill made up of several terraces, it is a granite rock sculpted into three steps. In the central part one can see a rectangular prism that is 36cm high and which is pointing from North-West to South-East. Its four corners are directed to the four cardinal points. The Intiwatana had specific functions: it measured time (the solstice and the equinox) by using sunlight and shadow, and also served as an altar. In Quechua, "Inti" means "sun" and "Wata" means "year", thereby giving us the meaning of a solar year observatory.

The sacred rock, located in a four-sided spot flanked by two three-sided rooms, features a monolithic rock sculpture. The pedestal, which is approximately 30cm high, resembles a feline. From another angle, it looks like the profile of a mountain near Machu Picchu. The Temple of Three Windows is located west of the main square, has a large rectangular floor. The enormous polyhedrons have been carved and joined with millimetric precision.

The Main Temple is located north of the Sacred Square, very near the Temple of Three Windows. Doors are a common sight in Machupicchu and especially in this sector. They vary in texture, size and architectural style that set them apart from each other, although all have the same trapezoid shape. To the South of the complex, between the Temple of the Sun and the Royal Palace, the area houses a series of water fountains, the only sources of the vital element for the residents of Machu Picchu.

There are four main squares at different levels, but share the characteristic of being rectangular in the classic Inca style, interconnected by sunken stairways in the parameters of the terraces. The main square is the largest, which just like the main squares in all Inca cities had religious and social functions. 

HISTORY 

Machu Picchu was done constructed and used by Inka Pachakuteq, that was the greatest statesman of the Tawantinsuyo, Pachakuteq ruled from 1438 for 1471, called the great age of the Inca empire; unfortunately it lasted less than 100 years, because the empire collapsed under the Spanish invasion. Although the citadel is located only about 50 miles from Cusco, Machu Picchu, it was never found and destroyed by the Spanish, as were many other Inca sites.

In the XIX century explorers like Eugenie de Sartiges, George Ephraim Squire, Antonio Raimondi and Castelnau never reached Machu Picchu, although most of them crossed the Andes to the almost inaccessible ruins of Choquekirau, built high above the Apurimac River. In fact, the outside world simply stumbled upon Machu Picchu, for it had never been lost to those who lived around it.

In December 1908, Bingham attended the First Panamerican Scientific Congress in Santiago, Chile. It was there that he decided to follow the old Spanish trade route from Buenos Aires to Lima, and it was to that end that he traveled to Lima and hence to Cusco. In Cusco Bingham made the acquaintance of one J.J. Nunez, then prefect of the Apurimac region, who invited him on the arduous trip to the ruins of Choquekirau.



On his return to the USA, Bingham decided to organize another expedition to Peru. Bingham returned to Cusco from where he journeyed on foot and by mule through the Urubamba Valley, past Ollantaytambo, and on into the Urubamba gorge. On July 23, Bingham and his party camped by the river at a place called Mandor Pampa, where they aroused the curiosity of Melchor Arteaga, a local farmer who leased the land there. Bingham learned from Arteaga that there were extensive ruins on top of the ridge opposite the camp, which Arteaga, in his native Quechua, called Machu Picchu, or "Old Mountain". Bingham offered to pay Arteaga well if he showed the ruins. He demurred and said it was too hard a climb for such a wet day, accompanied only by Seargeant Carrasco and Arteaga, Bingham left the camp. From the river they climbed a precipitous slope until they reached the ridge at around midday.

Here Bingham rested at a small hut where they enjoyed the hospitality of a group of peasants. They told him that they had been living there for about four years and explained that they had found an extensive system of terraces on whose fertile soil they had decided to grow their crops. Bingham was then told that the ruins he sought were close by and he was given a guide, the 11-year old Pablito Alvarez, to lead him there.

Almost immediately, he was greeted by the sight of a broad sweep of ancient terraces. They numbered more than a hundred and had recently been cleared of forest and reactivated. Here young Pablito began to reveal to Bingham a series of white granite walls which the historian immediately judged to be the finest examples of masonry that he had ever seen.

According to Bingham, "I had entered the marvellous canyon of the Urubamba below the Inca fortress. Here the river escapes from the cold plateau by tearing its way through gigantic mountains of granite. The road runs through a land of matchless charm. It has the majestic grandeur of the Canadian Rockies, as well as the startling beauty of the Nuuanu Pali near Honolulu, and the enchanting views of the Koolau Ditch Trail on Maui, in my native land…..”

Machu Picchu, the ancient Inca City was named to be part of the new list of the Seven Wonders. The global vote that began in 1999, accumulated near 20 million votes in its initial phase. And the final decision on July 7, 2007 in Lisbon, Portugal to name to Machupicchu one of the New Seven Wonders of the Contemporary World for satisfaction of the Cusqueño town (Cusco's people). Machu Picchu is today the main archeological site of Peru and America, and probably the most beautiful place of the world.

Christ the Redeemer

The statue of Christ the Redeemer is located at the top of Corcovado Mountain. The entire monument of statue of Christ the Redeemer is 38m high with the statue accounting for 30m and overlooking the city of Rio de Janeiro is one of the tallest statues in the world; the span from fingertip to fingertip is 28m and there is a small chapel housed in the base.

The reason why it was built was to show that Christ loves all. In Portuguese, this iconic monument is known as Cristo Redentor. Christ the Redeemer was designed by a French sculptor by the name of Paul Landowski and a local engineer named Heitor da Silva Costa was chosen to supervise the entire construction. The statue was built not out of steel but from reinforced concrete as that was considered a more suitable material for the cross shaped statue. The external caps of the idol were constructed in soapstone due to the resistance of this material to the extreme time and also due to its malleability.

The statue of Christ the Redeemer can be accessed by the 2.4 meter Corcovado Railway that has the capacity to hold 360 passengers every hour. The trip by rail is approximately 20 minutes and leaves the base each half hour. From the road or the train terminal Christ the Redeemer statue is reached by 222 steps. For those not wishing to make the arduous trek up the mountain, reaching the statue is possible by escalators and elevators.

Christ the Redeemer is one of the tourist attractions that every year attracts to more and more visitors. The best time to visit the Christ the Redeemer statue is late afternoon or evening when you can enjoy the splendor of the setting sun while taking in one of the most important landmarks in the world.



HISTORY


The history brings over of the construction of Christ's Redeemer statue begins in the century XVI, when the Portuguese gave the name of “Corcovado Mountain”, to one of its more impressive mountains an allusive name to its form hump.

In 1924, Don Pedro personally drove to the first official expedition to the Corcovado Mountain, this expedition end with the opening of an accessible raise to the above mentioned mountain. Then in 1859 the father Vincentian Pedro Maria Boss came to Rio de Janeiro and was struck by the mysterious beauty of the Corcovado Mountain and suggested the construction of a religious monument in honor of Princess Isabel, who in 1921 gave way for the idea of a great statue of Christ.

From 1859 to 1921, Don Pedro gave his consent for the building of the Corcovado Railroad line between Cosme Velho and Paineiras. After a hard competition, the project by the engineer Heitor da Silva Costa is chosen and in September, a national fundraising campaign for the works is organized.

Finally, in 1927, the construction of the statue begins after models of diverse sizes had been constructed. All calculations were done by Coast Hisses, helped by Pedro Viana and Heitor Levy, which during the years of construction, resided in a shed of wood at the foot of the monument.

All the necessary work material and workers who participated in the construction of the Christ statue were transported to Corcovado by the trains from the railroad that links the street Cosme Velha, which today functions as a tourist train to the top. The train was the first in Brazil appointed exclusively to transportation of tourists and also the first train to work by electricity.

The monument was inaugurated on October 12, 1931. The final design of the monument was of the artist Carlos Oswald and the person in charge of realizing the sculptress was the Frenchman Paul Landowskitura. The monument to Christ, the Redeemer on the Corcovado Mountain is one of the biggest déco sculptures in the world. Up to today, several reforms have been completed to assure the quality of the Christo Redeemer. Lighting has been added, and the latest renewal of September 2002 is the addition of a panoramic elevator and motorized staircase to ease the difficulty for elderly persons.

Petra

Petra is approximately at 3-5 hours to the south of modern Amman, approximately 2 hours to the north of Aqaba, on the edges of the mountain desert of the Wadi Araba. The city is surrounded by the highest hills of rust by colored sandstone that gives a natural protection to the city against the invaders.

Petra has more than 800 individual monuments, including buildings, tombs, baths, funeral corridors, temples, arched income, and adjacent streets, which especially were carved in the kaleidoscopic sandstone by the technical and artistic genius of their inhabitants. Petra's monuments are best seen by the visitors at early hours of the morning and last hour of the evening, when the Sun warms the multicoloured stones.

The site is semi arid, the friable sandstone which allowed the Nabataeans to carve their temples and tombs into the rock crumbling easily to sand. The colour of the rock ranges from pale yellow or white through rich reds to the darker brown of more resistant rocks. The contorted strata of different-coloured rock form whorls and waves of colour in the rock face, which the Nabataeans exploited in their architecture.

Petra was chosen as the capital of the Nabateans because it was located in a valley surrounded by Sandstone Mountains. There are many ways to get into Petra, but none of them are easy, and if the valleys are sealed, it is almost impossible for anyone to enter.

The main entrance to Petra is called the Siq; it has sides as high as 200 m. This gorge and the temple in the end of it (the Kazneh) were popularized in the movie Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade. Of all 800 tombs carved in Petra, the Kazneh is the most famous. His name Kazneh means "treasure" and comes from the Bedouin belief that the Pharaoh who prosecutes the Israelites concealed his exchequer in the urn in the high of the Kazneh. The fronts of tomb were constructed of the top downwards. The channels were carved in the rock.

The Monastery is the largest tomb façade in Petra, measuring 50 m wide and 45 m high. Despite its name, it was built as a tomb monument and may have acquired its name from the crosses inscribed inside. Like the Kazneh, the structure consists of two stories topped by a magnificent urn.




HISTORY


Archaeologists believe that Petra has been inhabited from prehistoric times. Just north of the city at Beidha, the remains of a 9000-year-old city have been discovered, putting it in the same league as Jericho as one of the earliest known settlements in the Middle East. The Bible tells of how King David subdued the Edomites, probably around 1000 BCE. According to this story, the Edomites were enslaved, but eventually won their freedom. A series of great battles were then fought between the Judeans and the people of Edom.

As many as 30,000 people may have lived in Petra during the 1st century A.D. It is a misconception that Petra was a city only for the dead. A large earthquake in 363 A.D. destroyed at least half of the city. Petra never recovered from this destruction.

Petra was seen first when discovered in 1812 after being lost by the 16th century for almost 300 years. The classical name Petra, and the early name Sela both mean the same thing, "Rock"; and surely no city was ever more aptly named. But "Rock" only conveys half the picture of the city; the wild, fantastic shapes of the hills, the great chasms which cleave them, the brilliant colouring all these must be seen to be believed. Petra is unique alike in its antiquities, its natural setting, and its approach.

Great Wall of China

The Great Wall of China is a series of stone and earthen fortifications in China, built, rebuilt, and maintained between the 5th century BC and the 16th century to protect the northern borders of the Chinese Empire during the rule of successive dynasties.

The steps that form the Great Wall of China are very steep and tall in some areas. Tourists often become exhausted climbing the wall and walk no more than a kilometre or two (around a mile). In some areas the blocks were cemented with a mixture of glutinous rice and egg white. In the extreme western desert locations, where good materials are scarce, the wall was constructed from dirt rammed between rough wood tied together with woven mats.

The Wall is included in lists of the "Seven Medieval Wonders of the World" but was of course not one of the classical Seven Wonders of the World recognized by the ancient Greeks.It is the world's longest human made structure, stretching over approximately 6,400 km from Shanhaiguan in the east to Lop Nur in the west, along an arc that roughly delineates the southern edge of Inner Mongolia, but stretches to over 6,700 km in total. It is also the largest human made structure ever built in terms of surface area and mass.

Three sections are in Beijing municipality, which was renovated and which is regularly visited by modern tourists. One of the most striking sections of the Ming Great Wall is where it climbs extremely steep slopes. It runs 11 kilometres long, ranges from 5 to 8 meters in height, and 6 meters across the bottom, narrowing up to 5 meters across the top. Wangjinglou is one of Jinshanling's 67 watchtowers, 980 meters above sea level.

South East of Jinshanling, is the Mutianyu Great Wall which winds along lofty, cragged mountains from the southeast to the northwest for approximately 2.25 kilometers. It is connected with Juyongguan Pass to the west and Gubeikou to the east. Another notable section lies near the eastern extremity of the wall, where the first pass of the Great Wall was built on the Shanhaiguan, the first mountain the Great Wall climbs. Jia Shan is also here, as is the Jiumenkou, which is the only portion of the wall that was built as a bridge.

HISTORY

The construction of the Great Wall China began in the 7th century B.C., under the Dynasty Zhou. This wall was constructed along many hundreds of years. The first version of the wall was constructed to support invaders far from the villages that cultivate the land for the Chinese border. These walls were constructed in weak points in the natural landscape or where the threat was perceived like the major one.

Some of these walls eventually became of greater strategic importance when the localised defences were gradually joined to form the Great Wall of China. At those times that the Chinese territory expanded northward, earlier walls became secondary defences when a more northerly wall was built. The Great Wall of China was built by soldiers, civilians, farmers and prisoners, primarily during three dynasties: the Qin, the Han and the Ming, although the Sui Dynasty and the Ten Kingdoms period also played a part. The building styles of each dynasty added their own flavour and advanced the techniques learned from the previous.

The first dynasty of China was the short lived Qin Dynasty. The first emperor, Qin ShiHuang, was a tyrannical emperor who unified China by force and set about constructing one Great Wall by joining. He even sent scholars to work on the Great Wall, anyone who was deemed unproductive. These workers faced arduous labor, and the constant danger of being attacked by bandits.

Most of early Great Wall was composed of weak stone, but when the natural stone in an area was not sufficient did that the engineers were turning to another method, there had to be used a rectangular frame that was filled with loose soil. This soil was trampled for several hours by a team of workers until this was solid. This process of landfill and to trample would be repeated again and again until the wall was reaching the wished height.

The second dynasty to add to the Great Wall was the Han Dynasty. The most notable contribution of the Han Dynasty is that they extended the Great Wall westwards through the Gobi Desert. Despite a lack of building materials, ingenious Chinese engineers found a solution. This method involved first laying down a layer of willow reeds, possibly woven. Then a layer of gravel and a little water was applied and trampled solid. After the trampling, a new layer of reeds and gravel was added. This process would be repeated until the desired height was reached. Amazingly, some portions of this Great Wall are still standing, partly due to the dry conditions of the Gobi.

The last dynasty to build a northern wall was the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). This dynasty built the biggest, longest, strongest and most ornate Great Wall ever. These are the walls that we are familiar with today. Their methods of Great Wall building fused all that was learned by the two previous dynasties. First, a center of trampled earth was created. Then, around the firm center was applied a shell of stone and bricks. The bricks that were created by the Ming are so strong that they compare well with the ones we use today. The strong Ming wall was built across some of the most dangerous terrains in China, including steep mountains, sometimes on 75 degree inclines. It has been said that every foot of the construction of this Great Wall cost one human life.

The Ming Dynasty Great Wall starts on the eastern end at ShanHai Pass, near QinHuangDao, in Hebei Province, next to Bohai Sea. It once spanned 9 provinces and 100 counties, but the final 500 kilometers of the Great Wall to the west have all but turned to rubble. Along the Ming Great Wall of China there are many watchtowers, spaced from less than a kilometer to several kilometers or more apart. These were partly used to transmit military messages. Fire and smoke were the most efficient means for communication; fire was used at night and smoke during the day. Straw and dung was used for this. In 1468, a series of regulations set specific meanings to these signals: a single shot and a single fire or smoke signal implied about 100 enemies, two signals warned of 500, three warned of over a 1000 and so on. In this way, a message could be transmitted over more than 500 km of the Great Wall within a few hours.

Seven Wonders of the Present World

Wonder	Date of construction	Location
Great Wall of China	5th century BCE – 16th century CE	China
Petra	c.100 BCE	Jordan
Christ the Redeemer	Opened October 12, 1931	Brazil
Machu Picchu	c.1450 CE	Peru
Chichen Itza	c.600 CE	Mexico
Colosseum	Completed 80 CE	Italy
Taj Mahal	Completed c.1648 CE	India

The Marvelous buildings,  statues,  and other construction human are the Wonders of the World, But out of these things these seven wonders are selected as the most marvelous creation of man. Lets go through these Wonders.